Things Fall Apart By Chinua Achebe - 1104 Words

In Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart, Christianity is introduced to a tribal clan through missionaries. The clan, however, has their own religion, which comprises of a clear social structure. While the mission is beneficial to many members of the clan, others are not content with the new influence. The Agbala—men with no title—are grateful for the new religion: the mission provides them with a new opportunity to become a respected member of society. The powerful men are wary of this change, as it decreases their power and status in the society, and allows for more social freedom and movement. As many in the tribe take to the new religion, the culture is slowly forgotten, causing conflict. When the missionaries enter Umuofia and attempt†¦show more content†¦A sudden hush had fallen on the women, who had been talking, and they had quickened their steps. Nwoye had heard that twins were put in earthenware pots and thrown away in the forest, but he had never yet come across them. A vague chill had descended on him and his head had seemed to swell, like a solitary walker at night who passes an evil spirit on the way.†(61) Nwoye realizes that he is powerless in Umuofia. He cannot save the twins, or himself. Nwoye is drawn to the mission, after being beat by Okonkwo. Feeling forced to live up to Okonkwo’s and the tribe’s expectations, Nwoye instead rebels, from his family and the violent practices of the Igbo culture as a whole. Nwoye feels a sense of relief from the missionaries’ song, as lessons the trauma of seeing the abandoned twins and knowing that Ikemefuna was killed. â€Å"The words of the hymn were like drops of frozen rain melting on the dry palate of the panting earth. Nwoye’s callow mind was greatly puzzled.†(132) Nwoye is relieved and enlightened when he hears the hymn. He understands the social structure in Umuofia is flawed, and decides to reestablish his life. The missionaries bring new hope to Nwoye, and to the outcasts of Umuofia. By extracting the outcasts from the society, the missionaries cause social upheaval and undermine the fabric of Umuofian society. In order for there to be a functioning society in Umuofia,

The Happy Prince Free Essays

In the beautifully written tale The Happy Prince, it tells a story of love and generosity. The book delves into a fairy tale of a swallow and a prince, it poetically talks of the time when the prince was alive and how he was such a joyful person. The people of the kingdom bestowed upon the prince the nickname ‘The Happy Prince. We will write a custom essay sample on The Happy Prince or any similar topic only for you Order Now ‘ When the prince died the town councillors chose to create a statue honouring him, setting the statue high above the town so the happy prince could watch over everyone. The Prince was coated in gold and rubies, this made him look magnificent and the whole town admired him. The prince became friends with a swallow and together they help the poor by giving them the gold and rubies off the statue. The book enters into a world of perplexity and reliance. The construction of the tale is written in an humorous way, but in doing that it also explores some serious issues involving poverty and loneliness. Playwright and poet Oscar Wilde started writing the children’s book ‘The Happy Prince’ in 1988, the remarkably written book is wildly popular even still 23 years later. Wilde’s collection of children’s story books consists of The Happy Prince, The Nightingale and the Rose, The Selfish Giant, The Devoted Friend and The Remarkable Rocket, all with different meanings, all just as funny and all just as heart wrenching. I think Wilde not only wrote these books for children but he made sure they are comedic and entertaining for adults too. The stories all have deeper meanings and talk about essential issues, this I think is makes the books even better. I remember my dad reading ‘The Happy Prince’ to me as a child, the story back then was completely different to what I remember now. The humorous way Wilde goes into relationship between the two main characters in the story really made me laugh, I liked the way he talked of how to swallow fell in love with the reed and how the other swallows thought it was ridiculous because â€Å"she has no money, and far to many relations. Eventually the swallow tired of the reed as she â€Å"had no conversation. † Wilde uses humorous writing conventions such as metaphorical description of the relationships in the story between the wind and the reed â€Å"she was always flirting with the wind. † I love the style of writing and how witty and crazy Wilde’s ideas are. I think Wilde’s children’s book will always be loved, the bizarre stories will continue to make people laugh and proceed to be fantastic bedtime stories. How to cite The Happy Prince, Papers

Persepolis 2 The Story Of Return Essay Example For Students

Persepolis 2 : The Story Of Return Essay Persepolis 2: The Story of Return is anchored around how Marji is affected by the social injustice that occurred during the Islamic Revolution. Growing up as â€Å"a westerner in Iran and an Iranian in the West,† (Satrapi 274) changes and molds her into the young woman she is at the end of her journey. In this second chapter of Satrapis life she moves away from the comfort of Iran and finds a life in Vienna. Marji desires to find her purpose and identity during her brief time here and faces many battles with language barriers, people and herself. Marjis past from Iran haunts her and instills the idea that she needs to make something of herself while in Austria. Finding that Austria took her down a darker path where the light was scarcer and the guilt from abandoning her culture became overwhelming she returns to her hometown. Adjusting back into the social norms of Iran is hard for her because of the freedom she experiences in Austria. Marji finds her passion within art and makes friends as well as a lover at the University in Iran that challenges her morals and forces her to think about her future. Marjane Satrapi reflectively illustrates the journey of finding her identity throughout adolescence during the Iranian revolution and her perception of Iran within the West. Marji began to get fed up with the strict Iranian ways, causing her to travel to Vienna, Austria to avoid social pressure and violence. During the Islamic Revolution often times woman were unsafe walking around the streets. They were told to not speak of their views and their education was not a priority for the government. The anti-feministic environment challenged her in many ways by making her fight for her voice to be heard. Marji is a strong, sassy, opinionated y. .ons do not incorporate much detail so this allows readers to fill in the story with their imagination. The cartooning in Persepolis 2 is simplistic and to the point. There is little distraction on the page and her layout of the panels is neat and read left to right. When looking at her work it is made clear that it is the reader’s job to fill in the illustration. Why would Satrapi do this? She presents her illustrations like this because doing so allows the reader to believe the characters more and get encompassed by the story. Moving forward, looking closely at the veils in the panel above, one can see that it is so much more than just an accessory appearing on the page. The veil attracts the audience to her features and expression allowing one to access her internal traits. The power of illustration and what you allow to show or keep to yourself is magnificent.

Karyotyping in Genetic Counseling Programme Essay Example

Karyotyping in Genetic Counseling Programme Paper Genetic counselling is a counselling process that deals with disorders within the family. This process involves a counsellor who helps the family or the person in the following ways: (a) discusses medical facts and informs about the diagnosis and the cause of the disorder and the cure; (b) informs the way heredity can cause disorders and the individuals in the family that possess risk; (c) helps to understand the cure but keeps in mind awareness of the comeback of the disease; (d) chooses the cure which they find appropriate, keeping in mind the risk and the family goals and acts accordingly to the decision; and (e) tries to make the best arrangements for the necessary adjustments within the family due to the disorder and/or to the risk of the reappearance of that disorder (Fraser, 1974). 1. Genetic Counselling Origin, Nature, and Goals Genetic counselling was established in 1947 and its main purpose was to explain the relationship between clinical geneticists and others who provide relevant information about etiology, history of nature, and occurrences of hereditary disorder risks. Its main aim was to promote a viable trend towards the various goals and values of those counselled and to dispel the association with eugenics that is relative to past practices of genetic counselling. The addition of nondirective approach in genetic counselling by the Rogerian psychology, has set it as standard in 1974. This standard remained consistent over time with the objective of early purveyors of genetic information with those scientists who were used to give information without providing advice (Mahowald, 1998). 2. Genetics Counselling Programme: Its Importance 2. 1 Reproductive decision-making: Some studies have defined effectiveness as having an impact on reproductive decision-making, leading to a potential reduction in affected births (Pilnick, 2001). Hildes at al. for example, reported a pilot neonatal screening programme for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), offering prenatal diagnosis for future pregnancies in women who are at risk. However, prenatal diagnosis was only actually carried out in two out of seven subsequent pregnancies. We will write a custom essay sample on Karyotyping in Genetic Counseling Programme specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Karyotyping in Genetic Counseling Programme specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Karyotyping in Genetic Counseling Programme specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The authors conclude that such programmes â€Å"may not be an effective way of decreasing the number of repeat cases of DMD within families† (Hildes, 1993). Another study of clients who reported reactions to genetic counselling, found that almost half (43. 5%) of 628 clients completing questionnaires six months after their counselling session, reported that their reproductive plans had been influenced. However, the change and stability of reproductive plan patterns of both groups -self-described influenced and not influenced were similar. Such an approach is always likely to be contentious because of its thinly veiled eugenicism (Wertz, 1986). This has led to a search for other possible outcome measures. 2. 2 Information recall: Swerts for instance looked at the shadow induced by both genetics counselling and neural tube defects (NTD) and prenatal diagnosis for Down’s syndrome (DS), and also practised a simple information-delivery model, evaluating effectiveness by measuring recipients’ recall rather than their subsequent reproductive decisions (Swerts, 1992). Measurements of knowledge acquired or information recalled after counselling are frequent proxies for effectiveness, reflecting the common attempt to avoid the stigma of eugenics by presenting counselling as an educational intervention to enhance recipients’ autonomy. A number of studies have compared ‘before’ and ‘after’ knowledge of genetic factors amongst various client groups (Pilnick, 2001). 2. 3 Anxiety reduction: Anxiety has the potential to increase among genetic tested subjects. Mennie et al. found that, compared with controls who were identified as non-carriers, Cystic Fibrosis carriers and their partners showed a significant increase in generalized psychological disturbance over a four-day period, while awaiting the partners’ test results. This was attributed to anxiety and depression. After the results had been released, both parties returned to their control levels. Watson et al. also examined anxiety in those being screened to ascertain their CF carrier status. The authors report that counselling had mostly allayed this when couples were interviewed six months after the initial test. However, since the screening was simply to determine (asymptomatic) carrier status, which is not essentially problematic in reproductive terms, this seems likely to have had an impact on expressed anxiety. Other researchers noticed no anxiety among a general population cohort screened for CF carrier status (Livingstone, 1994). A study of the psychological outcome of amniotic fluid in three risk groups (older mothers, mothers who had a previous child with DS, and mothers who had a previous child with NTD) found anxiety levels in relation to the test both differed between the groups and showed considerable variation within each (Everskiebooms, 1988). Different screening or testing programmes clearly have different implications for the participants, and there are no easy comparisons to be made or conclusions drawn. Although most literature in this area relates to genetic testing, some studies do focus directly on counselling. One report examined the impact of different counselling formats on mood. A psychological scale administered before and after counselling assessed mood change. The authors concluded that the use of different formats made no significant differences to mood, although there is no discussion of what the changes actually were (Fisher, 1981). Cull et al. carried out a similar assessment of differing counselling formats using the Spielberger state-trait anxiety inventory, and also found no significant differences between groups. Another study examined both clients’ expectations of counselling and its psychological impact, again using the Spielberger inventory (Michie, 1997). There was reduced adverse psychological impact when patient expectations were met in the counselling session. All these studies, however, are concerned with comparisons of counselling methods rather than counselling itself. The only study identified which explicitly focused on anxiety levels as a result of counselling concerned familial breast cancer (Lloyd, 1996). Counselees had higher breast cancer specific distress rates after counselling than before, despite being more informed. The potential for counselling to be a worrying or threatening experience is underlined. As Jarmas has pointed out, counselling may also have adverse psychological impacts on counsellors, an issue that does not yet seem to have attracted investigators. Nevertheless, anxiety reduction among those tested may be one of the less contentious outcome measures. 2. 4 Client satisfaction: The importance has also been defined in terms of clients’ satisfaction. In one study, 36 individuals who had received counselling for cancer were asked to rate their satisfaction both with the care provided by the clinical geneticist they had seen, and with general procedures at the clinic (L. P. ; Leschot N. J. , 1997). In another, clients were asked to rate counselling sessions in terms of clarity, depth of discussion and their willingness to raise issues; the ratings were examined for evidence of influence from the sex of the counsellor (Zare, 1984). However, both studies acknowledged the limitations of their approach, stressing the importance of relating such findings to qualitative analysis of the actual counselling sessions. Reported satisfaction is a questionable measure of process, since it does not necessarily relate to what actually occurred during the session. As Clarke et al. highlight, while research has focused on outcome, effectiveness is also fundamentally related to process. In their view, while outcome measures are valid in a research context, they are useless in practice, a position echoed by other commentators who argue that outcome measures used alone are both inappropriate and methodologically inadequate (Kessler, 1992). 3. Structural and Numerical Abnormalities There are two types of aberrations that karyotyping could be identified in the foetus – these are numerical and structural. Numerical aberrations depict loss or gain of chromosomes which might be one or more. The title aneuploidy has been given to such kinds of aberrations. The term trisomy expresses the occurrence of a single extra chromosome and the term polyploidy shows the occurrence of two or more chromosomes (Mosby, 2005). Structural chromosome rearrangements are considered to be the other main sort of aberration; this is an outcome of partition and reunification in a different configuration of chromosome. These aberrations also contain translocations, which includes the exchange of genetic materials among chromosomes. One of the most famous aberrations identified during the prenatal period are aneuploidies such as trisomy 21 (Down’s syndrome), trisomy 18 (Edward syndrome), trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome), and X and Y sex chromosome aneuploidies (Divane, 1994). 95% of live-born chromosomal aberrations occur as a result of them (Whiteman, 1991). Chronologically occurrences of various chromosome aberrations are very difficult in composition because certain aberrations have such negative side effect that the survival chances of the foetus are significantly reduced. Statistics and facts that are gathered on the occurrence of different aberrations on certain occasions must have to be present in relation to the number of births (which are before or after birth), occasionally in comparison to the numbers of amniotic samples examined, or at other times in terms of pregnancies. . Table1. Chromosome abnormalities commonly detected their frequency and consequences (Grimshaw, 2003). Chromosome number, shape, and size form the karyotype. In spite of the fact that every karyotype is varied for each organism, every cell in every organism has the same karyotype. Chromosomal abnormalities can be separated into two categories: numeric and structural (Figure 1) (Todd, 2000). Changes in chromosome numbers result in the addition (trisomy or triploidy) or loss (monosomy or aneuploidy) of a chromosome. Between and within chromosomes structural changes could appear. Regions between chromosomes can be traded (translocation) or donated from one to the other (insertion). In the same chromosome, regions can be lost (deletion), duplicated (amplification), or reversed (inversion). It is a challenge for medical professionals to correctly identify these structural alterations and following that counsel the patients (Todd, 2000). Figure:1 Diagrammatic representation of chromosomes and their structural alteration: A) Chromosomes 3 and 8 stained with giemsa (G-banding) at a resolution of the 400 band level. Each chromosome has a short (p) and long (q) arm that is separated by a centromere at one end and a telomere at the other. Chromosomes are described as metacentric (chromosome 3) or acrocentric (chromosome 8), depending on the position of the centromere. Bands and sub-bands are numbered from the centromere outward. B) Structural aberrations involving 2 chromosomes. Illustrated is a fragment from chromosomes 3 (yellow) and 8 (blue) undergoing translocation [t (3;8)(p21-pter;p21-pter)] and insertion [ins (3;8)(q21. 2-21. 3;q13. 3-22)]. C) Structural alterations involving a single chromosome illustrated (using chromosome 3) include amplification [dup(3)(p21-pter)], inversion [inv(3)(p21-pter)], and deletion [del(3)(p21-pter)] (Todd, 2000). Figure 2: The human karyotype and aberrations. A) The normal human karyotype consists of 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). Autosomes are chromosome pairs 1-22. The sex chromosomes consist of a pairing of the X and Y chromosomes (XX _ female; XY _ male). B) Each chromosome is composed of two chromatids. At the end of each chromatid is the telomere. The centromere (â€Å"clear zone†) is found in a centric or paracentric position. C) Numeric aberrations of the human karyotype appear in many diseases and syndromes. Most commonly, the change is an addition (trisomy) of loss (aneuploidy) of a chromosome. Down’s syndrome is an important example. D) Structural alterations are another important chromosomal aberration. Many types of structural alterations exist in human disease and syndromes. The Philadelphia chromosome, found in chronic myelogenous leukemia, is an important example and a major prognostic factor (Todd, 2000). 4. Methods Used in Genetic Counselling Programme 4. 1 Amniocentesis: Amniocentesis is one of several diagnostic tests that are carried out for mothers undergoing Genetic counselling. It detects the chromosome disorders that can occur in the unborn child. In this process, a sample of the fluid from the amnion is removed and then tested for disorders like Down’s syndrome, anaemia etc. This test is carried out during the 15th week of pregnancy. Amniotic fluid is used for different tests in the laboratory like karyotyping etc. However, amniocentesis increases the risk of miscarriage and therefore, this test is recommended only for women who have a high risk of chromosome abnormality. 4. 2 Conventional cytogenetics: For prenatal diagnosis the methods that are mainly used in genetic counselling are classified into two categories: Conventional Genetics and Molecular Cytogenetics (Bui, 2002). 4. 2. 1 Karyotyping In 1969 there was an expansion of karyotyping techniques for banding chromosomes, which allowed the detection of more subtle structural chromosome abnormalities. A karyotype is the exact organization (matching and alignment) of the chromosome complement of a cell. In a karyotype, chromosomes are arranged and numbered by size, from the largest to the smallest. Karyotype is the normal classification, which illustrates the normal or abnormal, constitutional or acquired chromosomal complement of an individual, tissue or cell line. To determine the numerical chromosomal abnormalities or structural rearrangements –mainly translocations- the conventional cytogenetic techniques should be used (Catalina, 2007). When full karyotype analysis is performed all the samples should be cultured enough so dividing cells are present. Then the cells are harvested, and the metaphase chromosomes are spread onto a microscope slide. The chromosomes are banded by enzyme digestion and then are analyzed by a cytogenetic expert. Advantages: Until now the gold standard for genetic tests is the conventional cytogenetic study, since it is the best one currently available for assessing the whole karyotype at one time. Moreover, it is inexpensive and detects abnormalities bigger than 3Mb in size (Catalina, 2007). Disadvantages: Only dividing cells can be assessed, there is a need for metaphase stage cells. No frozen tissue can be used. Moreover, it is a time-consuming method and due to the lack of automation in sample processing, the time needed to analyze and generate the final report is almost two weeks. Due to the difficulties of analyzing and interpreting the data, an experienced cytogenetic specialist is required (Catalina, 2007). 4. 2. 2 Molecular Cytogenetics Even though, Karyotyping remains the gold standard of chromosome analysis and still is the most frequently used genetic method in prenatal diagnosis, development of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) technologies (Bui, 2002) is the most significant step in cytogenetics during the past 20 years. Moreover, over the past 30 years modifications in cytogenetic techniques have provided an opportunity to increase sensitive detection of chromosome abnormalities. The invention of FISH techniques has provided the most prominent advances in the fields of research and diagnosis. A complete dissection of complex chromosome rearrangements can be achieved by the new multicolour karyotyping techniques and also provides the prospect of identifying new recurring chromosome rearrangements. Comparatively interphase fluorescence in situ hybridization and genomic hybridization both hindered the use of metaphase chromosomes altogether and have allowed the genetic analysis of previously problematic and unidentifiable targets. New advances in comparative genomic hybridization to DNA microarrays help in achieving high resolution and automated screening for chromosomal imbalances. Rather than replacing conventional cytogenetics, these new techniques have extended the range of cytogenetic analyses when they are applied in a complementary fashion (Kearney, 2001). 4. 2. 2. 1 FISH Background: The most common practice that has been carried out in molecular cytogenetics is known as FISH. In 1988 it was first introduced in USA based clinical cytogenetics, and speedy progress has subsequently been witnessed in this field. In 1991 the first test was made in the UK. This method acquires chromosome-based probes accompanied by fluorescent labels which are attached to them; now these probes can be found in commercial kit form. Microscope systems are required for detection, which are available as basic fluorescence microscopes to advanced image analysis systems known as microscope and camera devices of cooled charged-coupled type. This test involves more effort and resources than presently practising FISH, which is a harder labour test than the existing karyotyping technique (Grimshaw, 2003). Prenatal diagnosis and FISH Test: Fluorescent In-Situ Hybridization studies have been conducted earlier on uncultured amniocytes with the acquisition of single chromosome-specific probes (for example for chromosome 21). However, these probes (centromeric repetitive or alphoid) showed vivid evidence of cross-hybridization between certain chromosomes (e. g. the two probes interacted for chromosomes 13 and 21). This finding paved the roads to the development of different types of probes (cosmid contig and YAC probes). It was successfully demonstrated that the usage of the cosmid prodes to identify Down’s syndrome (trisomy 21) in 1994, in a study of 500 uncultured amniotic fluid samples. After a couple of years, the UK introduced the use of YAC probes so to ensure speedy first reports on samples (Lowther, 1996). Although, evidence emerged which predicted that a mixture of five FISH probes could be utilised as a combined multicolour FISH hybridization experiment, when testing the five chromosomes most commonly linked with chromosomal abnormalities (21, 18, 13, X, Y). Further into that these 5-probe FISH test kits were manufactured and made available commercially (Grimshaw, 2003). Figure 3. Diagram of FISH procedures (Carpenter, 2001). A number of techniques, such as multicolour FISH (MFISH) and SKY FISH, have been developed from the FISH-based karyotyping of chromosomes. Fluorescent dyes used spectral karyotyping methods that jot together particular chromosomes regions. By utilizing a chain of specific probes each with changing quantity of dyes, unique spectral characteristics were found in different pairs of chromosomes (Catalina, 2007). There is a wide range of FISH techniques for both diagnostic and research applications. Since commercial availability of probes is increasing most clinical laboratories now use FISH as an addition to cytogenetic diagnosis. Metaphase FISH with specific gene probes provides an accurate assessment of rearrangements with a defined diagnostic or prognostic value, and interphase FISH provides the possibility of analysis on samples that would otherwise fail. One of the most significant advances has been in the development of multicolour FISH technologies which has culminated in FISH-based karyotyping methods. Metaphase CGH provides a global screening approach allowing the analysis of samples previously intractable to cytogenetic analysis. More recently, the development of CGH to DNA previously intractable to cytogenetic analysis. More recently, the development of CGH to DNA (Kearney, 2001). Advantages: FISH is a very rapid method, the results are ready within 24-48 hours. Also it is a sensitive and cost-effective and identifies both numerical and structural chromosomal abnormalities in interphase and metaphase nuclei, and permits rapid sex determination (Catalina, 2007). Limitations: However, FISH has some limitations such as cross-hybridization of non-specific fluorescence signals, non-specific background, and suboptimal signal strength. Though, small deletions, duplications and inversions cannot be identified by painting prodes (Catalina, 2007). 4. 2. 2. 2 Multicolour Whole-chromosome Painting (M-FISH AND SKY) The most prominent characteristic of FISH is its ability to simultaneously identify several targets by using variant colours (multicolour FISH). As early as 1989, as many as three targets could be visualized at the same time (Nederlof, 1989). By the early 1990s 7 ±12 different probes in different colours could be simultaneous detected (Dauwerse, 1992), (Ried, 1992). However, it was not until 1996 that developments in probe labelling and digital imaging systems allowed the visualization of the entire chromosome complement in 24 different colours (Schrock, 1996), (Speicher, 1996). The two techniques, M-FISH and SKY, both utilize DOP-PCR amplification of flow-sorted chromosomes and a ‘combinatorial’ labelling approach. The principle behind this for both M-FISH and SKY is the generation of more colours than there are fluorochromes available, by labelling with 1:1 mixtures of fluorochromes. The theoretical number of targets which can be discriminated in this way is 2n=1, where n represents the number of fluorochromes available. Using only five fluorochromes, this allows painting of the whole chromosome in twenty-four coloured complement (see Figure 5). Figure 5. M-FISH colour karyotype of a bone marrow metaphase from an AML patient. G-banding identified a balanced t(1;3)(p32;p13), and this was confirmed by M-FISH (arrows). However, M-FISH also identified a cryptic der(6)t(6;22) not visible by G-banding (arrow). Two copies of the der(6) are present in this cell (Kearney, 2001). The imaging system which is used to discriminate fluorochrome combinations is the only difference between SKY and M-FISH. M-FISH is acquiring different fluorochrome pictures for each of the five fluorochromes using specifically selected narrow band pass filter sets (Eils, 1998),(Speicher, 1996). SKY on the other hand uses a single exposure of the image and a grouping of cooled charge coupled device (CCD) imaging and Fourier transform spectrometry to analyze spectrum of the fluorochrome combinations (Schrock, 1996). Both of these methods use dedicated software to transfer the unique labelling combination for each chromosome into a pseudocolour. It is important to mention that both of them have already demonstrated hidden chromosome rearrangements in complex karyotypes such as in tumour cell lines and in haematological malignancies (Speicher, 1996), (Veldman, 1997). Disadvantages: As with other whole-chromosome painting methods, both M-FISH and SKY are not capable to detect small intrachromosomal rearrangements (inversions, deletions, duplications). Both techniques can not detect mosaic cells. In particular, the limit of resolution for telomeric rearrangements is 2 ±2. 5 Mb (Brown,2000), (Uhrig,1999). Additionally, to overcome these limitations complementary FISH approaches are required. In addition to this, latest reports state that although M-FISH and SKY have proved to be extremely useful in prenatal, postnatal, and cancer cytogenetics, these technologies have innate limitations that, in certain cases, could result in chromosomal misclassification. Most multicolour karyotyping errors have a similar mechanistic origin. Structural rearrangements, which compare non-homologous chromosome material, often come up in overlapping fluorescence at the interface of the translocated segments; called occasionally as â€Å"flaring† (Lu, 2000). This effect can obscure or alter the fluorescence pattern of adjacent chromatin, which could lead to misinterpretation (Lee, 2001). 4. 2. 2. 3 Comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) CGH is a technique that presents an overview of the whole genome and allows the detection of DNA copy number changes. It is a powerful option instead of chromosome banding and FISH. This method can detect a genome screening of chromosomal differencies without previous information about genomic regions which could be a potential target. CGH is a substitute method which reveals unbalanced chromosomal changes that may happen in hESCs lines during lengthy-span cultures, especially in cases where it seems difficult to obtain high quality metaphases (Catalina, 2007). Advantages and Limitations of CGH: The obvious edge of the CGH technique is that it requires only the genomic DNA; moreover, CGH does not require prior knowledge of the genomic region of interest. CGH can also identify copy number changes, increases and losses of regions of chromosome. Though, CGH is able to identify a number of quantitative genetic alterations including duplication or deletion of single chromosome bands. The CGH analysis also indicates the presence of genetic abnormalities that are not detected by other cytogenetic or molecular approaches. The turgidity of this technique in detecting low copy number gains or losses is in between 10-20Mb, therefore the detection limit of amplification is 2Mb. However, CGH has several limitations such as inability to detect chromosomal balanced translocation, inversions, and intragenic rearrangements (Catalina, 2007). Figure 7: Comparison of cytogenetic techniques for identifying chromosomal abnormalities (Speicher, 2005) Although the advances of the techniques utilized in genetic counselling are major, all of them come with their own share of advantages and disadvantages. The same is summarized in Table 2. Quantitative fluorescent polymerase chain reaction (QF-PCR) QF-PCR combines the benefits of relative and competitive RT-PCR. It is accurate, specific, high throughput and relatively easy to execute. Real time PCR automates the lengthy relative RT-PCR process by quantitating reaction products for each sample in every cycle. RT-PCR systems detect and quantify the fluorescent reporter. The signal of this reporter increases in direct proportion to the amount of PCR product in the reaction. The reporter is a double-strand DNA which is bound to a specific dye (SYBR Green) and upon excitation emits light. If the dye is included in PCR reaction as PCR product accumulates the fluorescence increase. An alternative technique for quantifying PCR products is TaqMan, which depends on fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET) of hybridization probes for quantitation. The probe hybridizes to an internal region of a PCR product. After irradiation the excited reporter dye transfers energy to the nearby quenching dye, which results in a non-fluorescent substrate. The advantages of this method are that it is inexpensive, simple to use, and sensitive The future of prenatal diagnosis: Full karyotype or molecular cytogenetics tests? The introduction of rapid molecular testing of all prenatal samples has brought up the question of the need for full karyotype analysis of all samples. When ultrasonography shows chromosomal abnormality, and there is no aneuploidy can be identified by frequent testing, full karyotyping is definitely required. However, when women have been identified by serum screening and/or maternal age as being at increased risk of Down’s syndrome they undergo persistent testing. â€Å"Double testing† of these women in a public-funded health service could be considered as unjustifiable and there are also down points for the parents. The time between the results of the rapid test and the full karyotyping could cause needless anxiety. Additionally most parents do not realize the significance of the full karyotyping; because they only worry about Down’s syndrome and not for the possibility of other abnormalities. Full karyotype analysis could identify abnormalities of unidentified importance, likewise the presence of very small â€Å"marker† chromosomes, clearly balanced chromosome rearrangements, or regions of variability, which could be hereditary. These outcomes could frequently create counselling difficulties, and cause problems for the parents in how to deduce and choose between anxiety and pregnancy termination during an ongoing pregnancy. When a chromosome rearrangement is found in one of the parents, full karyotyping is needed to test for abnormalities arising as a result of the rearrangement. However, recent advances in the policy of pre-implantation genetic diagnosis for rearrangement carriers (Scrivn, 1998) have permited rapid prenatal testing for chromosome imbalance using sub telomere probes (Pettenati, 2002). The UK National Screening Committee (UKNSC) suggested in 2004 that there is no need for karyotyping when screening for Down’s syndrome and instead prenatal diagnosis with FISH (fluorescence in-situ hybridisation) or PCR as rapid diagnostic tests as should be offered. Furthermore, UKNSC also suggested that the two previous tests should only be included for trisomies 13, 18, and 21. Before introducing the radical step of rapid testing alone for pregnancies at risk of Down’s syndrome, it is important to set up the significance and predicted effect of such a change in policy. Full karyotype results of prenatal samples from these referral categories can be audited to determine how many clinically significant chromosome abnormalities are likely to be undetected if rapid testing alone had been carried out. Recent studies which are investigativing karyotype abnormalities in prenatal samples referred for raised maternal age (RMA) or increased Down’s syndrome risk identified by serum screening will be reviewed in the following paragraph: In 1,130 prenatal samples, which were all referred for RMA or elevated risk of Down’s syndrome, an important clinical abnormality in chromosome 8 was identified (deletion of the short arm), which would not be identified by rapid testing (Thein et al). This is responsible for 0. 08% of the sample group. Thilaganathan et al. reported 3,203 amniotic fluid samples, were referred for a number of reasons. Rapid testing here did not detect all clinically significant abnormalities, which were detected with ultrasound. On another study, Ryall et al.reported 2,737 prenatal samples from pregnancies referred as serum screen +ve and an abnormality in chromosome 2 and 6 were detected. In the largest cohort study with 20,923 referrals around 30 important abnormalities were identified which includes four small marker chromosomes (Lewin et al. ). Among them, three pregnancies had trisomy 8, three trisomy 9, and three trisomy 16; and were all non-mosaic and therefore non-viable. Additionally thirteen cases of structurally abnormal chromosomes were identified, and complex abnormalities were found in four pregnancies. Rapid testing would detected as far as 99. 2% of clinical significant abnormalities, when pregnencies are reffered to RMA or serum +ve. In these studies, 196 balanced rearrangements or other good prognosis anomalies were found, which would have required parental karyotyping. This would lead to anxiety and in some cases termination of pregnancy. 5. Summary The future seems very exciting since the new developments in genetic information will present great challenges for genetic counselling. Medical doctors are currently facing problems in understanding and retaining genetic information outside their own scientific area. In some cases it is still not clear when test should be offered, since if a family is affected legal action could be used to question why an available test was not offered. Eventually, more diagnostic techniques would help to identify and treat more effectively, but not without false positives. Though, queries about which disorders to diagnose and when, (e. g. premarital, pre-conceptional, foetal, childhood, adulthood) will continue. It is important to mention that molecular cytogenetic increase the progress of prenatal diagnosis used in genetic counselling programmes to reveal chromosomal abnormality. The molecular cytogenetic techniques provide speed, accurate, ease and reliable diagnosis although there are some limitations associated with these techniques. However, if combination of the conventional techniques and molecular ones wil

Practical vs. Theoretical essays

Practical vs. Theoretical essays Alexis de Tocqueville was born into a noble French family in 1805. After swearing his allegiance to the new government of France, he and a friend, Gustave de Beaumont, sought and received an assignment to study prison systems in the United States. After his arrival in May of 1831, Tocqueville made some of the cleverest, most enlightening observations anyone has ever made. His outlook on why the Americans were more addicted to practical rather than theoretical science was one of the most interesting. Equality begets in man the desire of judging of everything for himself: it gives him, in all things, a taste for the tangible and the real, a contempt for traditions and for forms. Tocqueville meant that people in America thought for themselves. They could figure out what was actually real, and did not like to follow traditions or go along with what other people thought, said, or did. This quote clearly shows that Tocqueville thought that the American people were obviously more practical than theoretical. He even stated in chapter 10, the chapter covering this issue, that Americans always displayed a clear, free, original, and inventive power of mind. He also went on to state that hardly anyone in the United States devoted himself or herself to the essentially theoretical and abstract portion of human knowledge. In a community thus organized, it may easily be conceived that the human mind may be led insensibly to the neglect of theory; and that it is urged, on the contrary, with unparalleled energy, to the applications of science, or at least to that portion of theoretical science which is necessary to those who make such applications. Alexis de Tocqueville seemed to think that Americans needed to be theoretical from time to time. He thought it would bring them more intellect, and perhaps interest. He also thought that instead of wasting good energy and activity, people should become more theoretical about things...

3 Misplaced Modifiers

3 Misplaced Modifiers 3 Misplaced Modifiers 3 Misplaced Modifiers By Mark Nichol 1. â€Å"A glass of water comes by request only in restaurants.† This sentence implies that the only type of establishment in which a glass of water is served is a restaurant. However, what it means is that in a certain type of establishment, a patron must ask to be served water. To communicate the correct meaning of the sentence, structure it with that syntax: â€Å"In restaurants, a glass of water comes by request only.† 2. â€Å"She advocated as a suffragist and journalist for women to crack male-dominated careers before she became an environmentalist.† This sentence structure suggests that the subject advocated for the stated goal, hoping that it would be achieved before she entered into her prospective line of work. But â€Å"before she became an environmentalist† is a modifier that is not integral to the sentence. To clarify its relationship to the rest of the statement, reorder the sentence as done in the first example by getting the modifying phrase out of the way at the onset: â€Å"Before she became an environmentalist, she advocated as a suffragist and journalist for women to crack male-dominated careers.† 3. â€Å"The process is painless, and you can be an elected official by spending less than $100 in most communities.† The implication here is that would-be politicians can succeed by investing less than $100 in each community they visit. What the writer means, though, is that less than $100 is required to file to become a political candidate. Do you see a pattern here? A modifier invites misunderstanding when it is tacked onto the end of a sentence rather than strategically positioned. In this case, however, unlike as in the previous examples, â€Å"in most communities† does not logically belong all the way at the other end of the sentence. Yes, perhaps the process is painless in most communities, but â€Å"in most communities† applies to the fee. That phrase should be excised from its current position and inserted not as an introductory phrase but as a parenthetical: â€Å"The process is painless, and, in most communities, you can be an elected official by spending less than $100.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:100 Words for Facial Expressions15 Great Word GamesDrama vs. Melodrama

Wikileaks Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Wikileaks - Essay Example The organizational operations are designed to protect journalists, activists and whistleblowers. The term wikileaks is a combination of two terms â€Å"wiki† and â€Å"Leaks† each of which is defined separately. According to Jennings, a wiki is a server program that permits users to work together in making up the content of a website. With it, any user who is using a web browser from their own computer can edit the site including other user’s contributions (4). It uses a collaboration of many users. The contributors can view the page any time conveniently before and after changes have been made to it. According to Jennings, the term wiki comes from Hawaiian language meaning fast. From the English dictionary, the word leak is defined as permitting to escape or to flaw. The leak part of the word describes what the organization does (Times Taffn.p). Wikileaks is an organization which gathers information that governments and institutions do not want released and posts it on the internet where everyone can read it. It is a system for untraceable mass document le aking. The founding and registration of wikileaks.org domain name was done on 4th October 2006 and was launched under the sunshine press organization. The founder of wikileaks was Julian Assange who was an Australian internet activist. The wikileaks site however states that it was â€Å"founded by Chinese dissidents, journalists, mathematicians and startup company technologists from the US, Taiwan, Europe, Australia and South Africa†. It was not until 2007 when Julian Assange was referred to as the â€Å"founder† of wikileaks. The advisory board consisted of Assange, Phillip Adams,Wang Dan, CJ Hinke, Ben Laurie, TashiNamgyalKhamsitsag, Xiao Qiang, Chico Whitaker and Wang Youcai. It started publishing leaked documents in 2007 which were significant and became leading front page news items. Since it was launched and started working, wikileaks has endured and

Promissory Estoppel Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Promissory Estoppel - Essay Example In this view, promissory estoppel is established as a contractual obligation that will in fact harmonize the often-divergent philosophies adhered to by legal scholars. This article looks at the different circumstances when promissory estoppel is used in the English courts and tries to summarize why the doctrine is an important part of contract law. It also tries to explain why the use of promissory estoppel is being contested. This paper maintains that promissory estoppel is still important in contract law and that instead of declining, it is actually evolving. Promissory estoppels has three distinct elements: (1) a clear and definite promise, (2) the promise induced action or forbearance, and (3) injustice can only be avoided with the enforcement of the promise (Boyer 1950: 460). The doctrine of promissory estoppels was first expounded in the case of Central London Property Trust Ltd v High Trees House (Denning 1946). In 1937, High Trees House Ltd. leased a block of flats from Central London Property Trust, with the conditions that the rent is worth  £2,500 and duration is 95 years. But because London was suffering from war bombings at the time, High Trees may not be able to pay out its lease. To help the company sustain its business and since numerous flats were still unrented, the plaintiffs sent a letter to the defendant confirming the reduction of the rent to  £1,250. The defendants continued to pay the reduced rent and by 1945, when all the flats have been rented out, High Trees paid only  £1,250. In September 1945, the plainti ff wrote a letter to the defendant collecting the original amount of  £2,500 for the entire year starting from September 29 to December 25, 1945. The defendants held that the letters passed on between the parties was evidence of modification in the original contract and that it was equally legally binding to the plaintiff company. Lord Denning

Metaphysics & Epistemology Paper Essay Example for Free

Metaphysics Epistemology Paper Essay G. E. Moore’s main contributions to philosophy were in the areas of metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and philosophical methodology. In epistemology, Moore is remembered as a stalwart defender of commonsense realism. Rejecting skepticism on the one hand, and, on the other, metaphysical theories that would invalidate the commonsense beliefs of â€Å"ordinary people† (non-philosophers), Moore articulated three different versions of a commonsense- realist epistemology over the course of his career. According to data I researched Moore’s epistemological interest also motivated much of his metaphysical work, which to a large extent was focused on the ontology of cognition. In this regard, Moore was an important voice in the discussion of sense-data that dominated Anglo- American epistemology in the early twentieth century. In ethics, Moore is famous for driving home the difference between moral and non-moral properties, which he cashed-out in terms of the non-natural and the natural. Moore’s classification of the moral as non-natural was to be one of the hinges upon which moral philosophy in the Anglo- American academy turned until roughly 1960. Moore’s approach to philosophizing involved focusing on narrow problems and avoiding grand synthesis. His method was to scrutinize the meanings of the key terms in which philosophers expressed themselves while maintaining an implicit commitment to the ideals of clarity, rigor, and argumentation. This aspect of his philosophical style was sufficiently novel and conspicuous that many saw it as an innovation in philosophical methodology. Moore is widely acknowledged as a founder of analytic philosophy, the kind of philosophy that has dominated the academy in Britain and the United States since roughly the 1930s. Moore also had a significant influence outside the academic philosophy, through his contacts in the Cambridge Apostles and the Bloomsbury group. In both academic spheres, Moore’s influence was due in no small part to his exceptional personality and moral character. One of the most important parts of Moores philosophical development was his break from the idealism that dominated British philosophy (as represented in the works of his former teachers F. H. Bradley and John McTaggart), and his defense of what he regarded as a common sense form of realism. In his 1925 essay A Defense of Common Sense, he argued against idealism and skepticism toward the external world on the grounds that they could not give reasons to accept their metaphysical premises that were more plausible than the reasons we have to accept the common sense claims about our knowledge of the world that skeptics and idealists must deny. He famously put the point into dramatic relief with his 1939 essay Proof of an External World, in which he gave a common sense argument against skepticism by raising his right hand and saying Here is one hand, and then raising his left and saying And here is another, then concluding that there are at least two external objects in the world, and therefore that he knows (by this argument) that an external world exists. Not surprisingly, not everyone inclined to skeptical doubts found Moores method of argument entirely convincing; Moore, however, defends his argument on the grounds that skeptical arguments seem invariably to require an appeal to philosophical intuitions that we have considerably less reason to accept than we have for the common sense claims that they supposedly refute.

Affirmative Action :: Affirmative Action Essays

In 1997, three students were denied admission into the University of Michigan. Each of them, in turn, sued the school, charging them with discrimination. In one of the cases, a student was denied admission into Michigan’s law school. Chicago Sun-Times writers Dave Newbart and Kate Grossman reported that last Monday, June 23, 2003, in a 5-4 majority ruling, swing vote Justice Sandra Day O’Connor judged for the school maintaining their right to consider the race of their applicants. In a second decision, the court ruled that they supported the University’s use of race in their admissions policy, but use of a point system was unconstitutional under the fourteenth amendment (Equal Protection Clause). Why then was the student still dissatisfied with the ruling? She was suing the school for reverse discrimination stemming from the University of Michigan’s use of affirmative action towards their applicants. The student was white. The lawsuit sent shockwaves across the nation. Though the case centered on college admission practices, affirmative action plays a role in many everyday matters, especially towards procedures regarding employment. Before delving into discourse and opinions, the background and history of affirmative action should be discussed. According to writer Stephen Cahn, affirmative action’s origins stem from an executive order that John F. Kennedy wrote in regards to the hiring practices of employers. Cahn writes that the President’s Committee on Equal Opportunity Employment stated federal contractors â€Å"...will not discriminate against any employee or applicant for employment because of race, creed, color, or national origin. The Contractor will take affirmative action, to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin." The principle of this order from President Kennedy was more developed with the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which in part stated that "No person in the United States shall, on the grounds of race, color or national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving federal fin ancial assistance." About one year later, President Lyndon B. Johnson defined the concept of affirmative action emphasizing that civil rights laws alone were not enough to resolve discrimination. Just months later, President Johnson issued an order to enforce affirmative action toward prospective minority employees in all aspects of hiring and employment. Employers must take specific measures to ensure equality in hiring and must document these efforts.

Learning Theory and Behaviorism

Learning Theory and BehaviorismOctober 16, 2012 Wundt’s Structuralism: †¢ Goal was to analyze the structure of conscious experience into its elements and components and their associative relationships. It was a form of metal chemistry †¢ Developed of the technique introspection, which requires trained introspectionists to look inward and describe/analyze the contents of their experience to a stimulus word †¢ Edward Titchner brought structuralism to the U. S. Cornell university listing 1000’s of elements of consciousness William James: †¢ James studied with Wundt, but rejected a static description of the elements of the mind. James thought the mind and consciousness to be adaptive function that envolved just as any other adaptive function †¢ Therefore, proper study of the mind is to relate its characteristics to purposeful, adaptive behavior. †¢ Hence the rise of functionalism. James was professor of psychology at Harvard Principles of Psych ology: †¢ James wrote this Titles were stream of thought, memory, reasoning, emotion, will, effects of experience Edward Thorndike: †¢ In the late 1800s at Harvard, drawing from James and functionalism and also Darwin’s ideas of evolution of species and their adaption to environment, he studied the progress cats made in solving a puzzle by learning a desired that is instrumental in bringing about desired outcome †¢ Notion of stimulus-response (reflexive vs. rational) was already firmly in the thinking of leading philosophers at the time, in the field of education Ivan Pavlov: In 1904, Pavlov received the Nobel prize for his work on the chemistry of digestive juices in saliva †¢ His work with dogs required gathering large amounts of saliva for chemical analyses. Done through a tube surgically implanted in dog’s salivary gland and then simulating salvation with dried meat powder Unconditional†¦. †¢ Dried meat powder is an unconditional stimu lus 9UCS) in that it always triggers the response of salivating. We call the response unconditional response (UCR).Needs no learning †¢ Many pleasure, pain, and emotional responses and tastes and smells are unconditional Psychic Reflex: †¢ Pavlov and associates observed that dogs would often begin salivating before they were harnessed and before the meat powder †¢ Pavlov switched his path of study this psychic reflex †¢ Studies are among the most famous in psychology. Type of learning he describes is known as â€Å"classical condition† or â€Å"glandular conditioning† Conditional†¦. Stimulus in effect becomes a signal that the dog will be harnessed, presented with the meant, and will be salivating. †¢ The dog must perceive this connection. Its meaning and power as a signal depends on its reliability. Its meaning and power are conditional on its place in time and its frequency in the sequence, becoming conditional stimulus (CS). The psychic reflex becomes a Conditional response. Prior to perception of a connection to the UCS, all events are neutral in meaning with respect to UCS.Conditioning involves responding to a CS with a CR in anticipation of the occurrence of the UCS-UCR pair. Learning: †¢ Conditional response (CR) is the learned response to the conditional stimulus (CS) which gained meaning to the extent it anticipates the UCS-UCR pain. The CR is potentially a adaptive response, a preparatory response †¢ The UCS-UCR pair do not re-occur, then the power of the CS to trigger a CR is weakened. The CS no linger bring about the CR-extinction. Higher order conditioning: The CS must occur fairly closely in time to the UCS-UCR pain- interstimulus interval (CS & UCS) †¢ However once a CS has gained the power to anticipate the UCS, other neutral stimuli close in time to the CS will become conditioned. A CS signal the next CS, which signals the next CS and so on until the original CS signals the UCS-UCR pai n-higher order conditioning. Historical context: †¢ The pressure of universal education brought pressures for psychologists and educators to study the processes of learning †¢ Alfred Binet (advocate from France) developed a test to measure abilities so as to place students in the proper grade.Concepts of ‘intelligence’ and IQ soon followed †¢ Darwin’s theory of evolution suggests that as a species of human beings evolved from lower forms of animal life. Though the gap between animals and human life remained wide in terms of language, thought, and civilization, question was just how intelligent are animals, are they closer to humans are intelligent than animals lower †¢ Industrial revolution; post revolutionary Russia and USA saw an ability to take classless societies and make it a brighter and stronger future, training an efficient workforce.John B. Watson: 1878-1958 †¢ Studied animal intelligence. He sought to move psychology more toward the empirical, deterministic physical sciences †¢ Empirical, means of the senses of implying data used in the science is observable, public, and objectively measured. Determinism implies a search for theories of cause and effect, identification of Aristotle’s immediate cause Behaviorists in control: †¢ Reshaping human society in the US and Soviet Union Philosophical behaviorism: belief that consciousness was an epiphenomenon †¢ Methodological behaviors: belief that observable objective measures of behavior are better over introspective self-report Operant Conditioning: †¢ Skinner says the probability of a response to the correct stimulus is more or less equal to that of any other response to other available stimuli. If the response to a stimulus brings about desired consequence, then the sequence of stimulus-response more likely repeated. Trial and error is as en equal probability for all possible responses on Trial 1 Terms: †¢ Reinforcer: sequence o f stimulus-response consequence; makes stronger the bond between the stimulus and the response †¢ Operant or instrumental response: behavior which bring about the consequence †¢ Skinner prefers to understand reinforcement as that which changes the probability of the response to the stimulus Reinforcer vs. Reinforcement: Reinforce is an event, a consequence that follows the response to a stimulus and is perceived to be connected to the response †¢ Reinforcement is a state of being that arises from the act of consuming or enjoying †¢ Positive reinforce is a positive rewarding consequence to response to a stimulus; all is good and you’ll do it again †¢ Negative reinforer is a painful consequence to the response to a stimulus; decreases probability of the response to that stimulus †¢ In negative reinforcement sequence is stimulus, response, negative reinforcerm escape response(which removes negative reinforce) positive reinforce.Total package: negati ve reinforcement. Probability of an escape/avoidance response is increased and the 1st response is decreased. Primary and secondary reinforcer: †¢ Primary: natural; one that does not have to be learned.Satisfy biological needs like hunger, thirst †¢ Secondary: consequence whose value must be learned through experience; come through socialization and subsequent learning †¢ Primary positive reinforcer: satisfies a natural need (food if you’re hungry, water if thirsty) †¢ Primary negative reinforcer: causes physical pain and discomfort (injury, illness) †¢ Secondary positive reinforcer: satisfies social and psychological needs (good grade, smile, kiss) †¢ Secondary negative reinforcer: socially punishing (failing grade, public slander, rejection letter) Classical and instrumental combined: A primary positive reinforcer=unconditional stimulus that follows some behavioral conditional response to conditional stimulus. †¢ Conditional stimulus is a secondary positive reinforcer Contingency: †¢ connection between a stimulus, response, and a consequence. One perceives the stimulus and performs the response expected †¢ extinction: when stimulus no longer elicits a response b/c reinforcer no longer appears †¢ superstition: one perceives a contingency when in fact there is none †¢ helplessness: perceiving no contingency between a stimulus and a response nd any desirable consequence, making no response †¢ fixed ratio: pattern is predictable †¢ variable ratio: pattern is random Resistance to extinction: †¢ skinner defines strength of learning as how resistance the acquired response to a stimulus is to extinction †¢ variable ratio schedule maintains responding far longer than fixed ratio †¢ fixed interval schedule gives reinforcer tot the last response as a certain interval of time elapses Psychological and emotional disorders A behavioral analysis of psychological & emotional disorders inc ludes the assumption that the symptoms (inappropriate behaviors, thoughts, or emotions) are acquired in a learning environment (i. e. not due to genetics or physiological dysfunctions or unconscious conflicts). †¢ Behavior therapy tries to extinguish the inappropriate responses to stimuli & train appropriate responses. Behavioral analysis of a phobia †¢ Phobia = learned, â€Å"acquired fear† o Intense fear or anxiety reaction to an event, classically conditioned by exposure to frightening, threatening, or painful stimulus. Instrumentally conditioned escape/avoidance behavior that takes very few trials, maybe only one trial to learn Obsessive compulsive disorder †¢ Obsessive state = intense drive state, often accompanied by images, thoughts, memories, desires, etc. related to drive state an identity †¢ Compulsive = behavior that corrects for or deals w/ the threat to the driving identity. Ritualized by repetition & success at keeping anxiety at bay. †¢ Compulsive behavior may originate in two ways: o 1.Person once praised for something & now seeks praise to maintain good feeling o 2. Person once punished for something & thus becomes anxious when this event occurs and does whatever to avoid punishment Behavioral analysis of anxiety and conflict †¢ The conflict of drives, stimuli, responses & consequences will result in indecision, inefficiency, & anxiety. Dollard & miller list the following: †¢ An approach-approach conflict: where two mutually exclusive positive consequences follow a response to two similar stimuli.The greater the emotional importance of the choice & the greater the finality (or temporal impact) of the choice, the greater the conflict: o Choosing whom to marry vs. choosing which friend to call o Choosing a book to read vs. choosing a film to watch on a weekend night o Choosing a car/house to buy vs. choosing a brand of frozen pizza to buy in the store †¢ An avoidance-avoidance conflict: where two mu tually exclusive negative consequences follow a response to two similar stimuli. Resolved in a manner similar to approach-approach. Choosing to cope with knee pain or having knee surgery o Choosing to write a paper or study for a test o Choosing any math course †¢ An approach-avoidance conflict: where two aspects of the â€Å"same† stimulus are in contradiction, one positive, one negative. o Enjoying the company of a friend, who also tends to get loud & obnoxious at parties. The conflict arises when the friend asks you to go to the party with her/him. o Contemplating a trip to Europe, but you have a fear of flying Behavioral analysis of anxiety & conflict The tension in approach-avoidance conflict in interpersonal relationships often forces a person to create a â€Å"safe-zone† in which, on the one hand, the person is not so far away from the other such that one needs to approach, but yet, on the other hand, the person is not so close that one needs to avoid the o ther. †¢ Often the zone is defined or verbalized in terms of emotional involvement, interpersonal distance, intimacy, time together, mode of communication, etc. â€Å"were just friends†¦Ã¢â‚¬  meaning not lovers, cousins, or strangers. The safe zone evolves. It is negotiated b/t the two persons in the relationship to their mutual satisfaction, though true mutuality is often difficult to achieve. Also, conditions may change it over time, especially due to factors such as distance, other relationships, new info, etc. Depression †¢ Result of a generalized learned helplessness. †¢ Helplessness learned when most instrumental escape or avoidance responses to a primary or secondary negative reinforce fail to bring about relief through a cessation of the punishment, discomfort.Inactivity/apathy describe lack of instrumental responses; pain, numbness, sadness are the classically conditioned emotional responses. Dissociative disorder †¢ Dissociative disorders, such as dissociative identity disorder (split personality) involves learning a new repertory of behaviors, thoughts, & emotions that are appropriate (and therefore reinforced) in a new environment along side of a previously learned repertory of behaviors, thoughts and emotions that are appropriate in a different prior environment †¢ Prior environment associated w/ punishmentSchizophrenia †¢ double bind theory of schizophrenia: child raised in a home environment of confusing/contradictory messages from at least one volatile, toxic parent. The child’s behavior is not predictably right/good, wrong/bad. The child grows up never sure or relaxed, but stressed and anxious. Child emerges chronic mistrust of his or her ability to behave, think, etc. he/she learns to behave as if disconnected from reality B. F. Skinner †¢ wrote beyond freedom and dignity – we’re already living in a behavioral society.

Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors

Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors Although the term cardiovascular disease refers to a disorder of the cardiovascular system, it is usually associated with atherosclerosis, also known as arterial disease. It is considered the leading cause of deaths in the world, taking 17. 1 million lives a year. There are only a few factors that are non-modifiable, these being the persons age, gender, family history and their race and ethnicity. Although there are non-modifiable risk factors, there are multiple multiple risk factors that are modifiable that anyone can use to prevent getting any type of cardiovascular disease. These people just need to have the motivation to be able to change themselves and their lifestyles in order to better themselves and their cardiovascular system all together. There are four non-modifiable risk factors when it comes to cardiovascular diseases. The first being age. Simply getting old is a high risk factor of cardiovascular disease, the risk or heart diseases increase every decade after the age of 55. A persons gender is also important; a man has a greater chance of getting a heart disease than a pre-menopausal woman. Once past menopause though, a woman's risk is just as high as a man's. Another risk factor is a persons family history. Once a person knows that their family history has some type of heart disease in it, it indicates that their risks are higher. If a first-degree blood relative has had a coronary heart disease or stroke before the age of 55 years old for a male relative, or 65 years old for a female relative, the persons risks increases. The last non-modifiable risk factor is a persons race and ethnicity. It plays a role because it has been proven that people with African or Asian ethnicity are at higher risk of developing cardiovascular diseases than any other racial group. There are a lot more modifiable risks than non-modifiable risks for cardiovascular diseases. The first being hypertension, which is also known as high blood pressure. This is known as the single biggest risk factor for stroke. It also plays a major role in heart attacks, but can be prevented and treated , only if the person has it diagnosed and stick to their suggested plan. Tobacco use also increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases, whether it being smoking or chewing tobacco. The risk is particularly higher if the person started smoking at a young age, smokes heavily and/or if the person is a woman. No matter how long that person has been smoking for, stopping can make a major difference when it comes to cardiovascular diseases. Physical inactivity is also a modifiable risk factor, obesity is a big problem in many countries and it increases the risk of heart diseases by 50%. Obesity also leads people to diabetes, which is also a risk. 1% or coronary heart diseases and 11% of the strokes worldwide are due to a high diet in fats, this is a big deal in certain countries because high diets in fats are seen everywhere. Another factor is being poor. It is normal that low income will make people's lives lean towards a stressful one, one where there is social anxiety, isolation and depression, which are all reasons why a person can get cardiovascular disea ses. When someone abuses alcohol, drinking more than two drinks a day, it increases their risks as well. There are a few other modifiable risk factors, such as taking certain medications. The only behavior that is detrimental to my cardiovascular health that I would be unwilling to change would be smoking. The reason for this is because I had tried to stop smoking before and I realized that I started gaining weight. Once I realized this I started smoking again, only because I did not want to keep gaining the weight I was gaining when I wasn't smoking. After I started smoking again I realized that if I would become hungry and I would have a cigarette, I would no longer be hungry, which would stop me from eating for a lot longer. The areas in my lifestyle that I could change or improve that would promote my heart health would first of all be my lack of physical activity. I've been wanting to start working out for a while now but never got to it. The first time I went to the gym, my body was so soar the next day that I no longer wanted to do it, but I know that soon I will have to suck it up and start going to the gym, and maybe at the time I will stop smoking because I would realize that I am getting much healthier. Another area would be the alcohol abuse. People at my age love to drink, it is something that we do on the regular because we always seem to have something to celebrate. And when we feel like having one beer, it always ends up being more then that, but that is something that I am willing to change and would love to change in return for better health. All of these would affect my heart health because they are all modifiable cardiovascular disease risks. They would make me a healthier and happier person in general because I will know that my body has changed for the better. I am planning on making these changes in the future because I know myself that I need to do this to be a much healthier person, because I know that day by day I am getting less healthy. I want to see myself as a healthy person and really believe that I am that way, and know that I am the person who did that, I was motivated enough to change myself for the better. I realized that I need to stop making excuses and I need to take action in order to become healthier and to make my risks even lower.

Euro Crisis Essays

Euro Crisis Essays Euro Crisis Essay Euro Crisis Essay The proposed Irish bail-out has not calmed the financial markets. And now their attention is moving on to new victims in the Iberian peninsula Only hours after European leaders have discussed about the bail-out from the EU and the IMF that may measured to $115b. Right after the European leaders devised a rescue solution to deviate from the debt crisis, experts had presented â€Å"we think the euro will go down still further† Their skepticism may be reflected since their unreliability about the euro zone including from Greece to at last Germany. They are worrying the close relationship around euro-zone. In the past, the Greece has gotten the bail-out from the EU and the IMF, in the mean time, the Ireland has been arising as another severe deficit country to be needed. The most fearful thing is the statue of the euro. The questions are remaining and much more appearing in the financial market. â€Å"Will Ireland’s bailout end the euro crisis? † The financial market does not agree that the Irish is not rescued finally the end of the chaotic instability and the investor’s confidence are not recovered over the zone’s future. Europe’s leaders are dealing with only one part of a bigger problem, and only when their backs are against the wall. In the very nature of EU’s bailout scheme, there are two things here. First, the success of the bailout will depend on the ability of Ireland’s government to impose incredibly severe budget cuts, demanded by its Euro-zone pals in return for the rescue funds. Second, the bailout of Ireland, as with Greece, does nothing to help the economy out of its crisis, aside from preventing an outright default. In short, the entire bailout mechanism articulated by the EU leaves too many questions unanswered, and thus will keep financial markets nervously.

Evernotes Beat Buhlmann How I became the CEO of my own life

Evernotes Beat Buhlmann How I became the CEO of my own life Evernote's Beat Buhlmann: "How I became the CEO of my own life" Beat Buhlmann is the General Manager of Evernote EMEA. With ten years of life management coaching under his belt, he decided to write a book about personal development planning and how it can help people manage their work goals and personal lives simultaneously. His book, Become the CEO of Your Own Life, was published earlier this year, an achievement that Beat credits in part to two time-saving friends to authors: Evernote and Reedsy. Read on to learn how these two tools came into play during the writing process, and to learn more about Beat's strategies for taking control of personal and career development.How did you get started on writing your new book, Become the CEO of Your Own Life?Working so intensively in the field of life management coaching was not my plan when I set out to start my career after graduation. As I began working, I quickly realized the importance of distinguishing between people management and business management. I also realized the importance of allowing an d encouraging individuals to accomplish goals not only professionally, but also in their personal lives - both parts are important if you want to create an environment of trust in the workplace.However, in today’s rapidly changing and hectic workplace laden with distractions and constant overload, managing one’s own life can be a challenge. To this end, I created a personal development plan (PDP) called the Swiss PDP Approach ®. For several years, I coached companies such as Dell, Google, and Evernote implement the Swiss PDP Approach ® to support their teams’ efforts to combine and align private and business life in an effective and meaningful manner. In today’s workplace laden with constant overload, managing one’s life can be a challenge. The Swiss PDP Approach ® is a simple approach but it works well, and I was getting increasingly more requests from Google managers around the world to hold people development training sessions for their teams. However, there came a point when I could no longer keep up with the demand - I still had a full-time job. I ended up having to to say â€Å"no, sorry† to many people, which was a difficult task, as turning down meaningful opportunities went against my inner beliefs. The first person whose request I declined was Matt Brittin, EMEA President at Google. It was Matt who encouraged me to write a book to share and spread my Swiss PDP Approach ®. So I did.What is the Swiss PDP Approach ® and how can it be applied to writers?One of the key elements of the Swiss PDP Approach ® is its non-silo approach. Far too often, people raise a wall between their private life and their work life (creating two silos). However, that does not make sense - what happens in your private l ife has an impact on your work life and vice versa. Therefore, I suggest a holistic, integrated view, as you can see in the following diagram: One of the main parts of the Swiss PDP Approach ® is about getting to know yourself, and I believe this is a vital step for any author looking to write a book, whether fiction or nonfiction. The following image shows you the three steps of the Swiss PDP Approach ®, the objective of each step, and who should support you: How did writing your book in Evernote affect your writing process?How do you write a book nowadays? How do you manage the vast amount of resources, literature, ideas, chapters, etc.? I can truly see the difference in the writing process between my first book, published 12 years ago, and my current one: Evernote. Evernote has been a game changer for me - it’s saved me so much time. Every idea, article, book, video, and audio recording is kept in Evernote and synchronized across all my devices. Having everything in one place allowed me to write whenever and wherever I wanted, whether it be commuting on the train, waiting at the airport, or during a flight.As the biggest challenge I faced while writing was finding the time, Evernote helped me jump a huge hurdle. I have a full-time job, I have a family, and I am a part-time EMBA professor at various universities. Finding the time to write was not easy, but thanks to Evernote, I could write during every opportunity I had: no matte r where or when, my book draft was always with me. My  biggest writing challenge was finding time. Evernote let  me write whenever/wherever I wanted. How did using Reedsy impact your book?When I was contacted by Reedsy  about a potential partnership, I first wanted to get to know the product better. As I was in the process of writing my second book, I started by using the Reedsy Book Editor to finish writing my manuscript. I took a liking to its  simple user interface and its marketplace for finding professional editors and designers.As my book is a practitioner’s book, I needed editors who could not only check for grammar and spelling errors, but also make sure that the book was clear and easy to understand. Being a non-native English speaker, it was important for me to not work with an editor who would simply rewrite everything. Yes, a native English speaker might formulate a sentence differently than me, but so what?  I wanted the book to be authentic and to sound like me. I stand for 100% quality and it is important to me that I write the books myself. Finding editors who ensured quality while maintaining my voice as an author was a great experience. I may be a non-native English speaker, but I still wanted the book to sound like me. I believe that everyone should do a PDP from time to time. If not, you run the risk of always going with the flow and being influenced or distracted by what is currently â€Å"cool.† Becoming the CEO of your own life requires you to invest time, and to engage in deep thinking and self-reflection. Try to enjoy the process, and remember that when it comes to your personal development, the results are in your hands! Becoming the CEO of your own life requires time,  deep thinking and self-reflection.

New York City Subway System as a Potential Target for the Terrorists Assignment - 1

New York City Subway System as a Potential Target for the Terrorists - Assignment Example The city cannot operate without the rapid transport system. This makes the subway an integral part of everyday life in New York. The importance of the New York City subway system makes it a potential target by the terrorists. The objective of terrorists is to instill fear in the minds of dwellers of a particular region by disrupting their activities and economy. The terrorists target the infrastructure that a city or state cannot do without. They disrupt operations and crumble economies. This makes the subway a preferred target. The attack involves a gas that will be spread across the subway to render the commuters there inactive. Since the terrorist expects maximum casualty, this will be their best approach. Thereafter, a bomb will be detonated to destroy the underground transit system. Such an act will affect a number of systems. The first will be the electricity transmission lines. The system of the underground transport system depends entirely on electricity for lighting and controlling the temperatures, the bomb is expected to destroy the wire lines that will have an impact on the city-wide transmission lines. A number of blocks adjacent to the building will go without electricity after the attack. The gas will pollute the air around New York City and might affect the Hudson River water. When such an attack is launched in a system as expansive as the New York City subway system, a number of activities need to be realized to assist in containing the situation. A first, every station will need to have their own communication base where all communication to the commuters and workers will be initiated. The security heads at every base will need radios and protective gear. Two at each station will be enough to ensure seamless communication. This will require 936 radios. The personnel will also need protective gear to protect them from the dangerous gases.

SWOT anaysis and Financial anaysis for Breakthrough Miami Essay

SWOT anaysis and Financial anaysis for Breakthrough Miami - Essay Example Ratios can be used to analyze an organization financial statement. This can be done by comparing the financial statements with the competitors. Financial statements are easy to read. From the above financial statements, the current assets were 19.7 percent of the total amount of assets in 2003, and up by 19.1 percent in 2002. The current liabilities declined r\from 16.1 to 15.1 percent of the capital at that time. Financial analysis can be used to kick of the strategy formulation in a more sophisticated way as a serious strategy tool. The tool can be used to understand the competitors, which gives the insight needed to craft coherent and successful competitive position. Dealtry, T R. Dynamic Swot Analysis: Developers Guide : When Looking to the Future Look for the Opportunities and Threats and Consider Your Strengths and Weaknesses. Birmingham: Dynamic SWOT Associates, 2002.

Computers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Computers - Essay Example Seeking to explore Dell Computers in holistic analysis, the following will provide a synopsis of the research undertaken on Dell Computers with an eye to the applicability and functuionalisty of this brand of PC. Perusing the site of Dell Computers and looking at the major price points, I determined that the Dell Vostro 220 was the cheapest option of available while the Dell Precision T7500 was the most expensive model on the market. What are the storage requirements for basic application such as Microsoft Office, Adobe Photoshop or Netscape Navigator? Microsoft Office requires a computer and processor of 500 megahertz (MHz) processor or higher; memory which is 256 megabyte (MB) RAM or higher1 and a hard disk space of 1.5 gigabyte (GB). Adobe Photoshop requires a processor which is 1.8GHz or faster, a minimum of 512MB of RAM (1GB recommended) and at least 1GB of available hard-disk space for installation. Finally, Netscape Navigator is no longer on the market, therefore its requirements are irrelevant. The following statement was released by parent company AOL, â€Å"Given AOLs current business focus and the success the Mozilla Foundation has had in developing critically-acclaimed products, we feel its the right time to end development of Netscape branded software. Read the history page for more details about this decision.† (Microsoft, 2009; Adobe 2009; Netscape, 2009). Looking at both the cheapest as well as the most expensive Dell models presently on the market, it is evident that both the Dell Vostro 220 and the high-end Dell Precision T7500 can support basic software applications such as the Microsoft Office and Adobe Photoshop. When you buy a new software package, why does it state the minimum RAM and hard drive space your computer must have for you to run this program? Essentially this sort of information pertains to the amount of available space

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Physician Assisted Suicide Philosophy Essay

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Physician Assisted Suicide Philosophy Essay Physician assisted-suicide is a personal decision which helps end a sufferings life. Physician assisted-suicide can affect a family physically and mentally. Physician-assisted suicide is the most common type of assisted suicide. Physician assisted-suicide or euthanasia describes any case in which a doctor gives a patient the means to carry out their own suicide. This  medical procedure  is most commonly carried out on people with  terminal illnesses. Physician assisted-suicide is a controversial issue worldwide. Physician assisted-suicide has both  pros and cons. When a person is suffering from aterminal illness  they are already physically suffering, and should have the right to decide how they want to die. A terminal illness is where either way the person is going to die in a certain amount of time and cant control it. However, physician assisted-suicide is illegal in 47 states, therefore there has to be some type of problem. Physician assisted-suicide should be legal for the people who are already suffering from terminal illnesses. They should not have to suffer anymore. Physician assisted-suicide is necessary in order to put human rights in place. Physician assisted-suicide has many disadvantages. Physician assisted-suicide has many disadvantages because in some states it is not legal and therefore if a physician goes through with the practice the physician will loose their license and can face getting sued. This has happened a few times and is a major problem. Washington and Oregon are currently the only states that permit physician-assisted suicide. Some physicians are not ok with aiding patients in dying, but that is normally not the problem. In source 3 by Reyes B.J, it states that Senate bill 803 prohibits  mercy killings,  lethal injections, and active euthanasia, and requires patients to receive informed consent. This explains that if a physician or doctor under any circumstances attempts to perform the suicide in states that it is not legal in, then there will be serious legal consequences. The Senate bill 803 protects the act of physician assisted- suicide. Although many people have their doubts about physician assisted-suicide there are many advantages of physician assisted-suicide. One positive thing about physician assisted-suicide is that physician assisted-suicide gives you the right to decide how you would like to die. In source 4 written by Lee M and Alexander Stingl he discusses the Right to die  debate. The Right to die Debate discusses whether or not people should have the right to die how they want. Many people could argue this because many people have different opinions on this personal issue. This is important because dying is considered a human right. Also ODDA (Oregons  Death with Dignity Act) permits physicians to assist terminally ill patients to end their own lives by writing prescriptions for  lethal doses  of medication. This means that in the United States, suicide, is no longer against the law. However Physician assisted-suicide still is not legal all throughout the United States. This is because instead of just the individual taking their own life someone else is involved, this makes the issue more complicated because there are legal actions that have to be put in place if anything happens that isnt supposed to. On the other hand physician assisted-suicide impacts some people differently. For example physician assisted-suicide is against the teachings of many religions, such as Catholicism, and some people feel as if it is unfair and unnecessary and against human morals. It is against some religions because physician assisted-suicide is not mentioned in religious readings for example the bible, and God does not believe in physician assisted-suicide. John Pearson writes about how legalizing physician assisted-suicide is unnecessary and painful, both physically and emotionally. If suicide was right then it would have been discovered throughout the ages by the great thinkers in law, ethics, and philosophy. If suicide was right it would have been mentioned in the bible and thats the reason that it is not classified as necessary and why people think it is against certain religions. The term  Euthanasia  was taken from the Greek word easy death. This is because it provides a quick and  painless death. In some scenarios physician assisted-suicide is best. One example of a scenario where physician assisted-suicide was best, was for Sandra Wiener. This 64 year old woman was lucky to die how she wanted. This particular woman prepared for her own death. Her physician described physician assisted-suicide as an unmentionable, intensely private procedure. Even though the 64 year old knew that what was being done was illegal at the time, her physician still carried out with the procedure. Doing this, she was committing a class E felony. However, it was best for Sandra Wiener, because she was terminally ill and suffering. In the eyes of the law, there have only been 3 acceptable ways involved with taking a life. Killing in self-defense, killing in war, and in the case of capital punishment. Physician assisted-suicide has never been looked upon as right. Many persons who want to legalize assisted suicide probably never looked at the risks that could happen if assisted suicide is legalized. If assisted suicide was legal fifty years ago, we wouldnt have some of the advancements that control pain, nausea, breathlessness and other terminal symptoms, today. Not only that but the money which is obtained from patients that spend a lot on medicine and hospital bills would cease to exist if physician assisted-suicide was legal Some diseases that were terminal a few years ago are cured by newly developed treatments. If we accept assisted suicide now, we might delay the discovery of effective treatments for those diseases that are now terminal. What about the already corrupt society of America? Todays citizens mi ght not be as honorable as one might wish when it comes to collecting on insurance policies and wills. With assisted suicide legalized, how would one regard the suspicious death of a terminally ill individual within the family? Physician-assisted suicide is a term often used to describe the provisions of the ODDA (Oregons Death with Dignity Act) although actions taken within the law do not constitute suicide, physician assisted-suicide, or  mercy killing  or homicide. Many groups that advocate for the rights of the disabled are against the legalization of physician assisted-suicide. This is because their objection stems largely from what they see as a history of medical discrimination against the disabled particularly the disabled poor. They support a group called Not dead yet. This group is largely against physician assisted-suicide. In the article written by Ann Jackson, she explains the positive outcomes of physician assisted-suicide. In 1997 there was a repeal effort. This repeal effort was to make the ODDA( Oregons Death with Dignity Act) effective. In 1998 the act was successfully effective. This was important because this act allowed a terminally-ill resident of the state to ask his or her doctor for a prescription of life-ending medication. This was positive because it allowed terminally ill patients to end their lives without suffering for any longer. With the technology and advancements in medicine today, who is to say that a persons illness couldnt be cured within the next few months or in the near future. Why end a persons life when you never know what could be in store for them. There is always that possibility of a cure coming out before it is too late. There is always that chance. How can someone else know if another person is really experiencing  unbearable pain and suffering? Who gets to be the one to decide or to tell another that their life isnt worth living? The fact is that nobody should be able to dictate what one shall do. People should be responsible for making their own decisions, and if they no longer feel that their decision is right, they have no one else to blame but themselves. They cant blame it on their physician if they do decide that they want to take their own life. Physician assisted- suicide is a very personal decision that should be carefully thought about. Physician-assisted suicide is not taken lightly. This is a very serious medical matter. There are many rules and regulations regarding this  medical procedure. Many wavers and  consent forms  have to be signed and notarized before undergoing this medical procedure. This medical procedure is a positive procedure for most families who feel as if their loved one is suffering, or has been suffering for to long. To ensure that the patient receives full trust within the doctor there is an oath. The  Hippocratic Oath  is an oath taken by doctors which ensures that they swear to practice medicine ethically. This ensures that the physician or doctors prescribing the patient with the lethal medicine which kills them, understands what they are doing and ensures that they are doing it correctly. This oath is like a backup consent. If the doctors or physicians are not abiding by this oath they can face serious consequences which could make them loose their  medical license  and even be sentenced to face many years in jail. In source 5 written by Andrew Walter he mentions that the Hippocratic Oath protects the patients when undergoing this medical procedure, Andrew Walter is very true when stating this because it protects the patients and the patients understand what is going to happen during a normal procedure. Overall physician assisted-suicide has both its advantages and disadvantages. Some people believe that physician assisted-suicide is morally wrong and unnecessary, but on the other hand some people think it is the best thing to do and is necessary to move on in life. Either way physician assisted-suicide is a controversial issue and has caused many issues over time. Currently  physician assisted suicide  is only legal in 3 states and Hawaii is still trying to make it legal as the fourth state.

Alexandra Bergman in Willa Cather’s O Pioneers Essay -- Willa Cather O

Alexandra Bergman in Willa Cather’s O Pioneers Works Cited Not Included Alexandra Bergman’s lack of self awareness allows others to forget that she is a woman and, at times, even human, which continuously builds the wall of isolation that surrounds her. As a result, when she reacts to situations as a woman would, rather than as â€Å"she† should, those around her don’t know what to make of it. Because she has been such a steady influence for so many years, those around her do not understand that perhaps she did have another dream besides working the land that she seems to care so deeply about. Her brothers in particular are unable to comprehend that Alexandra is a woman and was forced into the life she has lead by their father’s fantasy rather than by her own free will. Perhaps the only people who truly understand her dilemma are Ivar and Carl. Ivar is a â€Å"natural man† and a religious mystic and Carl a man who was unable to make a living from the land– neither is respected by their peers, and yet they have so me sort of insight to Alexandra’s heart that even she has failed to acknowledge. Alexandra’s walls are brought down only by love: love of her youngest brother, love of the land, and the return of the childhood love she thought was lost to her– as these loves begin to change her, her outlook on her entire life begins to change and meld into something that only those who actually know who and what she is recognize: a woman. Although Alexandra begins working the land to fulfill her father’s dying wish, no one in her early life ever realizes that perhaps she had other dreams and other wishes. â€Å"You feel that, properly, Alexandra’s house is the big out-of-doors, and that it is in the soil that she expresses herself best,† an... ...hemes fed their families, Alexandra’s hope was renewed continually by the promise of Emil’s future. When he dies, her dreams for his future are shattered, but her own are then able to be seen more clearly, without the filter of another person to care for. Ivar allows her to be herself to some extent, and more importantly can talk to her about things that only they can understand, about the land and the earth and the forces that move within it. Finally, Carl comes to his childhood friend’s rescue and reminds her that there is an entire world outside of Nebraska, and in that world she doesn’t always have to be the only one who truly cares. Through all of these men’s influences, Alexandra is in turn optimistic, hopeful, broken, and renewed. Without these changes within her self, she would never come to know exactly who and what she is– a farmer, a pioneer, and a woman.